Ionospheric Propagation (47.25 MHz - 108 MHz)

In FM dx-ing sporadic-E is one of the most popular propagation modes because it allows long-distance , typically  between 1400-1900 km. Although other distances are also possible, very long-distance ,  2800 km, and short-range . 600 km , are rare.

[ http://www.euskalnet.net/av1597/Radioaficion/ImagenesR/007.gif - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

in dx-ingul cu e-skipuri , vom vorbii de cele mai des propagate semnale de la 1400km spre 1900km , dar pe langa acestea care se petrec des , avem si distante ce depasesc 2800km.

exemples e-skip in romania :

egiptean , iordanian signals [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/2LeSVVUWopU?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]
german signals [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/Mimc8By5E60?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]
most popular lazal el samad 88.3/88.6/88.7mhz [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/h8oIKdJJoRM?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]  arabian , lebanon , jrodanian signal's
low signal e-skip 500km to 800km , turk signal's [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/Ine6Q4Ew7MU?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]
and maxim signal's UK in romania bucharest BBC R2 [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/7cT2mFbTaz8?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

the e-skip signal's in 50mhz , ch1 E-1 , Ch2 , E2 , Ch3 - E3 , R1 R2 R3 , the signl's tv is very important captured of the single dipole antena of my house.

most popular and des e-skiped in romania is JORDANIAN TV [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/C8G0MNlKyro?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]
rusia 1 oskankino signal ch2 [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/UdaoTvAHuQg?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]
italian rai uno signal [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/UdaoTvAHuQg?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ] [e-skip with italian signal radios in this film]
nova tv cehia signal  [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/X0A6WdkPHR4?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]
la une signal [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/6TNFFA1xUdM?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]
and IRIB2 max signal tv in e-skip [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/6TNFFA1xUdM?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

on the relief of the romania the south is in avantaje to medional mountains reflected signal e-skip to plain . the zone of the maxim reception e-skip is Ploiesti , Bucharest , Oltenita , Giurgiu , Pitesti , RM Valcea , SLatina , Craiova , Resita .
In this cityes the signal's e-skip is double with the reflexion on the mountains medionali . on picture is a  demonstration of the singal's

the remember most power e-skip in romania ..
The dx of the time STARTED in 1988 with the Ralf Georgescu of the Bucharest city. In date 24.06.1988 in the prim reception e-skip listen a radio to fance radio difuzion.This start the adventuryes in Romania with dx-ing .

The zones Romanians is unstable the tropo reception . The elevations down is principale cause an this reception is unstable and low propagation!

Romanian dx-ers of the time ?

1989 ? LUCESCU PETRU ? ZIMNICEA .. Reception on the Jordanian tv in e-skip in R2 channel of the summer days 21 ? 27 june.

1989 ? GRIGORESCU  NOTI ? Bucuresti .. listen the radio in east band the radiodifuzion of the rusia

1989 ? MR IONESCU BROGA ? FETESTI start the dx-ing and ?guard? the TROPO and E-skip singnal and note the propagated signal?s

1990 ?  Anisoara Albu ? Bucurest  - received the Rusian radio and televizons in e-skip in Romania and listen the turk radio of the summer tropo f2

1990 ? Mancas Grigore ? Calarasi ? start the new signal reception in e-skip and in notes put down the first  Italian in e-skip reception

1991 ? Marga Oteanu Gabriela ? Slobozia ? the new added in note in e-skip ducting of summer the prim reception of the signal german public radio

1991 ? Sabin Popa Gurita ? Giurgiu ? add the new reception in the tv italian and note ? e-skip

1995 - Popalau Botovitz - bucuresti , reception a signal "Radio ALBADUAH" in the East and West band .

Edited by Zvartoshu, 03 February 2009 - 11:34.

EU
on the january in romania start a 1:36:28 time of the arabic signal's , 90.5 rotana/light fm , 88.7 sawt al madena , 88.3 lazal el samad , 90.0 hamedina . extreme sporadic in winter .corresponding of RAM's explication of the winter the solar activity is slow and inogram's fxy is down to 3.74% , the factor on this e-skip is unkonw , in this e-skip power in winer exact factor view to radar Y2tro in romania is 3.98% .
the news of my capture , and the record cws on the anse plot radar are incredible , the ecquivalent is a sporadic on the summer . power signal on this "EXTRA SHEEP" is 36db 88.7 sawt al madena , 4.3db 88.3 lazal el samad.

RO
in ianuarie in romania a pornit un e-skip arabic de 1:36:28 cu rotana 90.5 sau light fm , 88.7 sawt al , 88.3 lazal , 90.0 hamedina . un extrem e-skip in iarna . corespunzator explicatiilor radioamatoricesti iarna activitatea solara este slaba si ionogramele cu factorul fxy este scazut spre 3.74% , iar factorii de e-skip sunt adesea necunoscuti , iar in acest e-skip de putere din iarna factorul vazut pe raradul y2tro in romania est de 3.98%.
stirile mele cu aceasta catura a ,mea , si a traducerii pe pe cws si a ansei plot a radarului sunt incredibile. echivalentul acetui e-skip este exact cu acela de vara . puterea semnalului in acest BONUS de e-skip este de 36db /88.7 sawt al si 43db pentru lazal 88.3

[ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/YGPe1IAynAs?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

un nou e-skip in romania simtit ieri pe 90.5mhz , acest e-skip a durat 1:49 secunde dintre care eu am prins 1:22
[ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/1jTb5sGeFmo?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

a new sporadic in romania in date 19/02/2008 , duration on this sporadic 1m 49s , a captured maxim 1:22 on this slow signal italian sporadic on 90.5mhz .
the shlager radio signal is non stop , and the sporadic time this signal be instabile.

the medium sporadic was start in bucharest on 15:22 . the first signal , 88.3 unknown singnal , stereo .
the capture .. here [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/nrIbjvKIZco?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

un nou sporadic sa petrecut in romania la 15:22 m primul semnal si cel care lam prins este 88.3mhz semnal stereo si necunoscut , captura lui este aici [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/nrIbjvKIZco?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

the strong best sporadic signal on 88.7 was start in bucharest on 12:52:335 . the sound capture of this e-skip is here [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/haselJZyIwg?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

un bun sporadic e signal a pornit in bucuresti la ora 12:52.335 , sunetul si captura acestui e-skip sunt aici la  [ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/haselJZyIwg?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

Quote

draga george , am editat spectric pas cu pas sporadicul matale , si mp3-ul l-am ascultat , oricum este superba melodia cum suna la refren , daca mai poti sa imi trimiti din el ca vreau sa ascult melodia tota . merci , rezultatele , le ai aici !

the peple read the my message of the editer signal radio , and quote of the image spectric of the sporadic-e !

Edited by Zvartoshu, 04 March 2008 - 13:26.

the minimal , shrot , sporadic E reception on tv in e-2 chanel  start in date 12.03.08 hour 19:08 of the ITALIAN NATIONAL CHANEL RAI UNO !
capture is here
[ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/QeqzMWSub8s?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

cel mai mic si scurt sporadic E - e-skip pe tv in e-2 a pornit in data 12.03.2008 la ora 19:08 , cu semnalul postului public national de tevelivizune rai uno

Edited by Zvartoshu, 12 March 2008 - 19:45.

Mar 25, 2007

NETIA today announced that Jordanian FM station Sawt al Madena Radio has received the 2007 Digital Studio Industry Leadership Award for best radio installation. The award honors the state-of-the-art technology implemented at Sawt al Madena Radio, which took its broadcasts live in February 2006, using NETIA's Radio-Assist range of digital audio software programs.

The Radio-Assist range of digital audio software programs covers the entire operation of a radio station, allowing production staff to record, edit, or prepare playlists while working within a single application. Sawt al Madena Radio, located in Amman, has equipped one of its studios with Radio-Assist Air-DDO software, with four workstations dedicated to scheduling and ingest, and two others for news capture from live satellite feeds. This NETIA system is customized with an Arabic-language interface and provides a broad range of playout functions.

The installation at Sawt al Madena Radio relies on one centralized SAN storage system, an HP StorageWorks 100 modular smart array, and two database servers, which provide 2,000 hours of storage. This configuration gives Sawt al Madena a highly scalable storage solution for broadcast content. Offline storage, doubling as an archive, is supplied by a CD jukebox with a capacity of up to 10 TB. Initial administration of the Radio-Assist system and training were performed by engineers from NETIA, and maintenance is supported by HEAT, NETIA's local representative in Amman.

"We're proud to work with broadcasters, such as Sawt al Madena, that value and leverage technological innovation to simplify the acquisition, production, and delivery of audio content," said Pascal CIMA, NETIA sales manager for Europe and Middle East. "Sawt al Madena has established a remarkable facility for its operations, and we extend our sincere congratulations to the station for its success in winning a Digital Studio Industry Leadership Award."

The Digital Studio Industry Leadership Awards 2007 were held during CABSAT, the Middle East's largest cable and satellite exhibition. The awards, which acknowledge the efforts of individuals and companies that have contributed to the growth of the broadcast and production industry in the region, were announced on Wednesday, March 7, at the Jumeirah Beach Hotel, Dubai.

Radio One FM
Radio One, Lebanon, was established in 1983 by Raymond Gaspar and rapidly became, and continues to be, the leading foreign radio station. With English Music programming as its main feature, Radio One provides the very best radio entertainment in the Lebanon.

Al Anwar Newspaper
Daily Arabic newspaper from Lebanon, one of the largest publishing houses in the Arab world covering Lebanese and Arabic affairs.

As-Safir
Arabic political daily newspaper from Lebanon.

Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Byblos and Botrys
Official site of the Greek Orthodox Church - Mount Lebanon headed by Metropolitan George Khodr. Also publishes Raiati My parish with an online version.

E-Liban
Not just a country guide, this is a movement that is trying to mobilize Lebanese from all over the universe to contribute and help their country at a critical time where Lebanon needs the efforts of all its citizens and people who stand for the human values and rights.

Sawt El-Mousika
Sound of Music Lebanon, A Lebanese Arabic Entertainment Radio, Abyab w Aswad by Randa El Murr is a major program played on this radio station.

Radio Liban Libre
RLL was founded by the late president Sheikh Bechir El Gemayel , in the summer of 1978 during the most difficult phase of the war in Lebanon. Charles Malek, one of the founders of the human rights, suggested its name.

Marhaba Lubnan
An Online radio based in Melbourne, Australia. Listen via Real Audio on the net. The radio programs are produced and presented by the United Australian Lebanese Movement in Melbourne Australia.

Radio Orient Lebanon (Lazal El Samad)
Radio Orient began broadcasting from Beirut in February 1995 across the world on Future Television satellite channel. The station is located at Australia Street in the Rawche district of the Lebanese capital.



in romania in this moment the sporadic E low signal was start at 15:46 , the singnals sporadis is of the 87.8mhz , 88.7mhz , 90.0mhz , 90.5mhz , 93.0mhz , 93.8mhz  .. the singnal are instabile!


continue the excursion on the arabic radio signal ...!



9
T h e s t a t e o f t h e m e d i a : l e g a l
f r a m e w o r k a n d g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n
Apart from notable differences in the political and social situations in the five
countries, there are obvious similarities in the way the media operate. In all cases, the
media remain generally under the control of the ruling elites, and information is a sovereign
domain. Wire services, television, radio, newspapers, publishing and Internet are all subject
to regulations that restrict freedom of expression.
Regular forms of intervention and control over the media include censorship, harassment
and arrests of journalist, seizures of newspapers, and rejected applications for licenses.
According to the UNDP report on press freedoms in Arab countries, the situation in Egypt is
“difficult”, while Jordan and Lebanon face “considerable problems”. In Syria, the
deterioration of press freedom is considered to be “very serious.”
Egypt
This country extends over an area of 1 million km2, with a population of over 77
million (a third of the population of the Arab world) and there are over 500 newspapers and
magazines today. Cairo has the oldest press agency in the Middle East, the Middle East News
Agency (MENA), which sends out continuous dispatches in Arabic, French and English. The
Egyptian press is far and away the most widely read in the region. The three most important
dailies are Al-Ahram, with a circulation of about 1.1 million, Al-Akhbar and Al-Goumhuriya.
In 2003, 534 licenses were granted for newspapers and magazines. In 2004, 25 new
publications were authorised and there are a further 30 regional papers.
Egyptian television is highly varied, even if not very pluralist. There are two national
hertzian TV stations, six local stations, and five satellite channels: Nilesat 101 and 102,
Dream TV1 and TV2, and Al-Mihwar. Some 63% of Egyptians have access to television. There
are an estimated 2 million satellite dish receivers each serving an average of 33 viewers.
The first law regulating publishing in Egypt goes back to 1881 (if a law introduced by
Bonaparte in 1867 is ignored!). Before the 1952 “free officers” military coup, the press was
relatively independent. Since then, several laws have been passed to regulate the press and
publishing. The first significant law was passed in 1960, under President Nasser, who went on
to nationalise the press and instigate an editorial monitoring body. This body was dissolved
by Sadat in 1974.
The modern Egyptian constitution, adopted in 1971 and amended in 1980, contains several
articles regulating the media. Its article 48 guarantees “freedom of the press, publishing,
and the media”. Law n°148, passed in 1980, and amended in 1983, 1992 and 1995,
authorised the publication or privately-owned newspapers. It thus allowed the appearance of
independent newspapers, while requiring that they seek prior authorisation to be vetted by
the security services.
Nevertheless, ownership of newspapers is restricted to public or private legal entities,
cooperatives and political parties. An individual may not own more than 10% of the capital of
a media. Meanwhile, the government continues to hold a monopoly over the printing and
distribution of newspapers. A supreme press council has been set up, with responsibility for
awarding licences to journalists and newspapers and for controlling the distribution of
foreign press in the country.
However, these constitutional arrangements on press freedom are being contradicted by the
state of emergency that has been in force since 1981, and which was extended for three
years in 2003. Law n°158 of 1958 and its article 3, which is still in force, give the President
of the Republic the power to order censorship of newspapers and publications that might
threaten public peace and national security. Similarly, the new law on press and
publications, amended in 1996, prohibits criticism of the President and official dignitaries. It
thus sanctions “libel” of Parliament, the military, public authorities and the President of the
Republic. And state management of newspaper printing and distribution of means that their
circulation can be disrupted.
Again, according to Law n°158, the Minister for Defence has the right to ban national
publications. Meanwhile, the Minister of the Interior has the power to stop foreign
publications from entering the country. Law n°162 of 1958 authorises arbitrary arrests and
detentions without trial. Often-repeated promises by President Mubarak to improve the 1996
law on the press, and to repeal prison sentences for journalists, have never been kept.
Several violations of press freedom were recorded in 2004. The most edifying was the kidnap
in November 2004, of Abdel Halim Qindil, editor-in-chief of the Nasser weekly Al-Arabi (The
Arabic) by men dressed in plain clothes, who threatened to kill him after a series of articles
published in his paper criticised President Mubarak for standing for a fifth term of office.
One of the last examples of the limits to press freedom was the media coverage of the last
presidential election. The Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies (CIHRS) followed this
coverage from the start of campaigning on 17 August 2005. It observed five State television
channels, two independent channels and 17 independent newspapers and magazines. Its
conclusion is categorical - both public and independent TV channels gave the lion’s share of
airtime to Mubarak. And, apart from a few papers like El-Masri El-Youm and Nahdet Masr,
the majority of print media supported the incumbent president’s campaign10.
Jordan
Jordan is a small country. with 5.5 million inhabitants. Its three most important
Arabic dailies are Al-Rai, with a circulation of 100,000 (www.alrai.com) and published by the
Jordan Press Foundation (public sector) since 1971. Its main rival, Ad-Dustour, with 80,000
copies (www.addustour.com), is close to the government, and was founded in 1967 in
Jerusalem by one of the Muslim Brothers. Al-Arab Al-Yawn, with 24,000 copies (www.alarabalyawn.
com.jo), was founded in 1997. An independent daily, it is considered to be fairly
audacious in its treatment of current affairs. Meanwhile, the independent and liberal daily
Al-Ghad was launched in 2004. The independent weeklies and those affiliated to political
parties are by far the freest media in Jordan. The most important is Al-Shihan, with sales
estimated at about 25,000 copies.
The press law enabled a number of tabloid weeklies to appear, some of which are openly
sensational, such as the Arabic language Al-Shihan (www.alarab-
10.- The daily newspaper. Al-Dustour, devoted 97% of its coverage to the Mubarak campaign, cf. “News from the Media
Scene”, Newsletter n°16, http://www.rap21.org/article18640.html
alyawn.com.jo/shihan/index.html), Al-Hilal (www.alhilal.com.jo ), and Al-Hadath, known
for their eye-catching photomontages. The Muslim Brothers organisation runs the weekly, Al-
Sabil, while Arab nationalists publish the weekly Al-Majad (www.assabeel.net), directed by
Nasserian, Fahd Al-Rimawi. The authorities have suspended this magazine several times.
Entering into law in 1952 and amended in 1974, 1976 and 1984, the Jordanian Constitution
stipulates in its article 15 that “the freedom of the press and publishing is guaranteed within
the framework of the law”, adding that “the press and publications are free within the
framework of respect for the law”. In 1993, Jordan passed a law regulating the media (law
on publications and broadcasting) exclusively applied to print media and publishing. Judged
to be relatively liberal, it made it possible for several independent Jordanian weeklies to
emerge. The Jordanian government did not, however, waste any time before restricting the
freedoms acquired by the press, in a new law passed in 1997.
In this way the legislator increased the number of bans and toughened sanctions for breaking
the law. The amendments adopted in 1998 only made the situation worse. With the
accession of the new King, Jordan introduced a new law in 1999, which was considered by
some in the media as fairly liberal. But the law was then beefed up by article 50 of the 2001
penal code, sanctioning offences against “the reputation of the State”, “national unity”, and
its “prestige and integrity”. Libel of the king and his family is punishable by up to three
years in prison. Journalists may thus be arrested or imprisoned for their opinions. The
security machine and courts also intervene to control and censor the press.
To a large extent, the situation of the media in Jordan depends not only on the
internal situation, but also on political developments in neighbouring countries. Several
observers say that the signature of peace agreements with Israel led to increased vigilance
by the authorities vis-à-vis media coverage of the Arab-Israeli conflict. After the 11
September 2001 attacks, these same observers emphasised that, in Jordan, “the fight
against terrorism” was used to justify a number of measures undermining press freedoms.
At the end of October 2003, King Abdallah II designated one of his close advisors to replace
the former Prime Minister, who was accused of corruption. The new Council of Ministers,
which was called upon to accelerate reforms, instigate a “new style” and go further with
modernising the country, has no Minister of Information, and the Department of Information
is now placed under the direct authority of the Prime Minister. Despite a democratic façade,
the media’s margin of freedom therefore remains limited. Coverage of the 2003 war in Iraq
is perhaps the best illustration of this. Despite ongoing privatisation of the media, the
authorities continue to have de facto control over the media. The government is majority
shareholder of the main dailies such as Al-Rai, Jordan Times and Ad-Dustour. At the end of
April 2003, the government nullified article 150 of the penal code, passed after the attacks
of 11 September, which drew up a long list of subjects banned from the press and which
allowed newspapers to be shut down. This article also allowed for sentences of up three
years imprisonment for journalists who are accused of damaging the image of the royal
couple, or for incitement “to crime, strike action, or illegal public assembly”.
However, despite the announced democratisation of the media, the State Security Tribunal –
a military tribunal whose sentences do not allow right of appeal - continues to sanction
journalists accused of overstepping the limits imposed by the law on press freedom. One of
the most heavily reported affairs was the suspension, in January 2003, of the weekly, Al-
Hilal, by the Public Prosecutor of the State Security Tribunal, and the arrest of three of its
journalists, following publication of an article said to “attack the values of Islam”. These
journalists were held in prison for two weeks, “pending inquiries”. The incriminating article,
entitled “Aïcha (the name of the Prophet’s last wife) in the House of the Prophet”, made
allusion to the sex life of Mohammed. As well as being subject to a fatwa by theologians
close to the Islamic Action Front, these journalists were finally sentenced to two- to six
months imprisonment, for “libel” and “outrage against Islam and the prestige of the State”.
The judge also decided to suspend the paper for two months11.
Despite the official repeal of the right of censorship, the Prosecutor of the State Security
Tribunal continues to intervene to stop newspapers going to press. At the end of 2003, the
independent weekly Al-Wehda (an Arab nationalist paper) was not allowed to go to press
because it criticised the Prime Minister, Faycal Al-Fayez. In September 2004, the weekly Al-
Majd was shut down for publishing an article criticising Saudi Arabia. The editor-in-chief of
Al-Hilal was arrested, even though this paper is seen to be close to the Palace.
Within the framework of reforms, the Palace set up a commission chaired by the former
Minister of Information and current vice-Prime Minister, Marwan Muasher, whose job it is to
draft proposals for democratising Jordan’s media. The commission’s 19 recommendations
were made public on 2 October 2005, in time for the Global Forum for Media Development in
Amman from 1 to 3 October 2005. They stipulate that the High Council for Information be
dissolved and replaced by an independent regulatory body; that a global law on television,
radio and the internet be passed; nf there be a ban on prior censorship, seizure of
newspapers and suspension of authorisations to publish, until the courts have given their
verdict. Finally, the recommendations put an end to obligatory membership of the Union of
Journalists, a corporatist organisation set up in 1953 and seen to be close to the Palace.
Lebanon
Lebanon is a small country, with a surface area of 10,500 km2 and 4 million
inhabitants, with no natural resources. It owes its economic development to the role it plays
as a bridge between the Arab world and the West. Lebanon is incontestably the Arab country
with one of the most diverse ranges of media. There are dozens of daily papers and hundreds
of weeklies. The most important dailies are Al-Anwar (with a circulation of 47,000), An-
Nahar (45,000), Al-Liwa (32,000), As-Safir (30,000) and The Daily Star (29,000). In 1992, the
Minister of Information recorded 105 licences for political periodicals, seven of them in
French, four in Armenian and four in English.
After the Ta’if Accords (1989), the Lebanese government started to reorganise the country’s
media. While the civil war was fatal for a number of publications, it helped many radio
stations to flourish. Many thought that, with the end of the war, Beirut would at last become
the capital of press and publishing in the Arab world again – but the presence of Syria meant
that things turned out differently. In reality, the Ta’if accords only institutionalised the
political and religious rifts in the country.
As a result, there were two waves emigration of Lebanese journalists out of the country. The
first was during the civil war, from 1975. And the second started with the arrival of Arabic
language satellite channels in the Gulf region (Al-Jazeera, Abu-Dhabi TV and Al-Arabiya),
marginalising State television.
Before its sudden withdrawal in June 2005, the presence of the Syrian army in Lebanon put
considerable pressure on the media, even if it did not stop dailies like An-Nahar (with its
weekly supplement) and As-Safir from speaking against the occupation. The Lebanese media
11.- One of the three journalists was freed in May 2003 and the two others saw their sentences reduced to a fine.
are increasingly cautious today, following the assassination of Samir Kassir in June 2005, and
the attempted assassination of a television journalist. Some journalists even employ
bodyguards, convinced that Syria has a black list. Tense conditions such as these are hardly
conducive to freedom of expression, as the country is hit by chaos in the Arab world and the
consequences of the war in Iraq. Competition from the satellite channels and increases in
the price of newspapers have also contributed to a drop in print media sales.
Article 13 of the Lebanese constitution guarantees freedom of expression. The press is
organised by a 14 September 1962 law, largely based on the French example. The law
nevertheless prohibits criticism of “foreign heads of state” with fines for papers that
disobey. This law has been used widely to stifle criticism of Syria. And the same law also
requires papers publishing political news and comment to obtain a so-called “category 1
license”. In 2003, there were five papers in this category.
Syria
The press in Syria is in one of the most critical situations to be found anywhere in
the Arab world, and is the reflection of an authoritarian regime that has confiscated all
forms of democratic freedom. The three official Arabic papers are Al-Baath (the Baas party
paper), Al-Thawra (government paper, circulation 35,000) and Tishreen (25,000). There is
also a government daily in Alep. A daily free press is not allowed. There are only a few
weeklies, such as Voice of the People (Sawt Al-Shab), published by the Syrian communist
party and member of the Progressive National Front, close to the government, and the
satirical weekly L’Unioniste. So, with a few exceptions, the State remains the main owner of
the media.
In this country, there is only one candidate in presidential elections, proposed by the Baas
party, designated by Parliament, and then elected by referendum. According to the law,
only independent individuals (i.e. not organisations) can stand in general elections, but they
must be backed by the government or belong to one of the parties in the Progressive
National Front (i.e. the Baas party and some satellite parties). When Hafez el-Assad died on
10 June 2000, the Constitution was amended to enable his son, Bachar, to take over as
President, being too young according to the previous Constitution.
The arrival of the new President did see a small crack open in the political sphere, though.
In 2001, there were calls from the people for the state of emergency to be lifted; it had
been in force since 1962 and renewed by Communiqué No 2 from the leaders of the 8 March
1963 coup. Civil unrest had touched the party in power, and, for the first time in 40 years,
independent newspapers were able to appear. Three opposition party dailies, two
independent dailies and one satirical publication were authorised. But the “Damascus
Spring” did not last long. Afraid of losing control of the situation, the Baas regime reacted
swiftly and launched a new campaign of repression against the opponents.
After the invasion of Iraq, the Bush administration stepped up its pressure on Damascus,
notably by adopting the so-called Syrian Accountability Act in November 2003, which
authorises the President of the United States to impose sanctions against Syria. Meanwhile,
the possibility of the involvement of the Syrian authorities in the assassination of
the Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafic Hariri in early 2005, the sudden Syrian withdrawal from
Lebanon and pressures exerted by the European Union and the United States, seem only to
have had a relative influence on Syrian internal politics, as seen by the outcome of the Baas
party congress in June 2005. This congress had been preceded by the repression of the last
democratic forum - the Atassi forum, named after a former Baas party leader who had
refused to join the Progressive National Front, which was then headed by the father of the
current President. This, together with exceptional efforts to woo the business sector, meant
that the congress addressed most of the issues that were being raised inside the country,
such as emergency laws, public freedoms, separation of powers, nature of the economy and
citizenship for Syrian Kurds. It also got rid of the Party’s old guard, but disappointed
observers on two essential counts: the principle of political alternation and State reforms.
This congress was also an opportunity to get some heads of the security services onto the
party’s executive committees.
The vulnerability of the regime does not seem to be reason enough for it to take significant
measures to provide greater freedom for the media. The media have been regulated since
2001 by a decree (n°50), which contains over 50 articles controlling print media. Newspapers
and periodicals may now be under private ownership, but the Prime Minister remains in
charge of controlling and licensing them. Article 16 of the decree specifies that a press
owner must be at least 25 years of age, of Syrian nationality for at least 5 years and have a
university degree. In 2002, the government authorised the privatisation of radio stations.
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r a d i o
i n t h e A r a b w o r l d
The people of the Arab world have very limited access to newspapers and magazines.
According to the 2004 UNDP Human Development Report, daily newspaper circulation in the
Arab world is 53 copies per 1000 inhabitants, compared to 258 per 1000 in developed
countries. Print media are largely reserved for the educated. This is particularly true in a
country like Egypt, where a large proportion of the population cannot read. In contrast, over
half the Arab population today has access to television and radio. These media are the most
common source of news in rural areas. In Jordan, where 10.3% of the population is officially
illiterate13, only 6.3% of homes have their own Internet access, 79.7% possess a radio, 97.2%
have a television set and 46.9% have a satellite dish. In Egypt, almost two-thirds of the
population listen to the radio every day, especially to news and religious broadcasts14.
In Palestine, Bir Zeit University15 carried out an opinion survey with a sample of 1184
Palestinians living in the West Bank and Gaza, on the perception and coverage of the
Intifada by independent radio stations. According to the results published in June 2001, 36%
of those interviewed said they could not express an opinion on the content of radio
broadcasts, because they either do not register or do not pay attention to the way events
are treated; 46% trust the information given out by these stations; 15% only believe in them
moderately and 5% do not trust them.
In both the West Bank and Gaza, radio continues to be an important source of information,
despite the popularity of television, and especially Qatar-owned Al-Jazeera. Both at home
and in public transport, local radio broadcasts useful information during Israeli incursions.
These stations broadcast air-raid warnings and very often send out messages for the
emergency services.
Access to radio and television in four of the countries studied
Number of radio sets per 1000 inhabitants:
Egypt 339 (1997)
Jordan 372 (1997)
Lebanon 182 (2001)
Syria 276 (1997)
16
Access to television sets per 1000 inhabitants:
Egypt 229 (2002)
Jordan 177 (2002)
Lebanon 357(2001)
Syria 82 (2002)
13.- Source: “Jordan in Figures”, May 2005, issue n°7.
14.- Cf. “The Media in Egypt. BBC News”,
http://newsvote.bbc....ls/print/news.b
bc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_esat/419
15.- Cf. http://home.birzeit....urv4/intro.html

Access to satellite TV per 1000 inhabitants (in 2001):
Egypt 11
Jordan 46
Lebanon 79
Syria 50
Source: World Development Indicators Database, World Bank Group.
Apart from some disparate figures that are not updated, there are few data on radio in the
Arab world in general, and in the five countries of our study in particular. Research on radio
listeners and their sociology are more or less non-existent. This paucity of data is basically
due to the lack of independent survey organisations and specialised research centres
interested in these subjects. What rare figures there are, usually from private companies,
need to be treated with caution. This kind of research is often commissioned by radio
stations, in order to convince sponsors or businesses that they are competitive, and often
respond to advertising imperatives, as is the case in Lebanon. As a result, there is little
research on how the media are received.
A consensus nevertheless seems to emerge: radio still has a promising future in the Arab
world, both as entertainment and as a source of information. Satellite entertainment
channels (specialising in video clips and soap operas) can be seen on screens in public places
such as cafés and shopping centres, where no-one would stop to listen to radio. But radio is
still putting up a fight against the opposition and is trying to seduce young people, as shown
by the emergence of music FM stations and the success of the music and short news flash
formula made popular by Sawa, the US radio station.
I n d e p e n d e n t r a d i o s t a t i o n s
a n d n e w l e g i s l a t i o n
Lebanon was the first Arab country to authorise privately owned radio and television
stations, although the government reserves the right to grant and withdraw broadcasting
licenses. The new laws on radio and television, introduced in the second half of the 1990’s,
have given the media a degree of autonomy, but remain essentially very restrictive, often
preventing opposition parties and civil society from using the media.
Egypt
There is no public, legal framework organising radio broadcasting in Egypt.
Jordan
Before the new law was passed authorising non-public FM radio stations, several
foreign FM stations were already broadcasting in Jordan, outside any form of legal
framework. The BBC, Radio Monte-Carlo, Sawa and MBC had no official authorisation.
Now, broadcasting is covered by law n°71 of 2002, which refers exclusively to terrestrial and
satellite radio and television. Its objective has been to reorganise Jordan’s media, by
authorising private investment, notably from abroad, in the country’s radio and television
stations. This law makes it possible to set up a radio station, once a license has been
obtained from the Audiovisual Commission, a new body created under law n°71. The license
application must state explicitly how the station will be financed, include documents
underwriting the solvency of the applicant, list the technical means and equipment that will
be used, and describe the chosen editorial approach. The law stipulates a maximum delay of
60 days to process an application to the Commission. In compliance with the law, the radio
station has to nominate a full-time executive director, who must be experienced, be fluent
in the main language used by the station, and have no criminal record. The law gives the
media one year to start its activities, once it has obtained a license; beyond that date the
Commission will withdraw its permit.
If a license is refused, the law does not require the Commission to justify its decision.
In 2003, following the entry into force of law n°71, the Kingdom passed decree n°163 on the
granting of broadcasting licences. This decree prohibits the broadcasting of programmes that
undermine:
- religious beliefs;
- the values of the nation, its heritage and the union of Jordanian society;
- public order and morals;
- citizens’ rights.
The decree also sets taxation levels for FM stations with transmitters less than 5 kw: 25,000
dinars (30,000 euros) for the region of Amman, 15,000 dinars (18,000 euros) for the regions
of Zarka and Irbid and 10,000 dinars (12,000 euros) for the rest of the kingdom.
FM stations that belong to a foreign radio station and use a transmitter on Jordanian soil,
have to pay 20,000 dinars (24,000 euros) for the region of Amman and 10,000 dinars for the
rest of the kingdom. Further taxes become payable if other frequencies, or satellite
broadcasting capabilities, are acquired. The tax is subject to a 50% surcharge if the station
broadcasts political or news programmes.
• Regulatory bodies
Law n°71 gave rise to the Audiovisual Commission, with its ‘administrative and financial
autonomy’. Nevertheless, this Commission still depends on the Minister of Information for
funding. The Commission plays a strictly consultative role, namely to:
- promote the radio and television sector and its organisation;
- examine license applications;
- monitor authorised media;
- grant authorisations for correspondents and technical equipment used by these media.
The Commission comprises a director, designated by the Council of Ministers, and an
executive structure made up of civil servants appointed by the Ministry of Information to
whom the Director must report back.
The Commission is supported by another body, the High Council for Information, a
consultative structure close to the Palace. Although it was created in 2001 and operational
by 2002, it statutes were not passed until 2004. It has five main lines of action:
- proposing new laws governing radio and television;
- presenting reports on press freedom;
- setting up a training centre for journalists;
- organising training sessions for radio journalists;
- arbitrating in disputes relating to information issues (e.g. examining complaints from
journalists or media organisations).
Lebanon
Lebanon has played a pioneering role in the region, introducing legislation for
independent radio stations and setting up a regulatory body. From a researcher’s point of
view, it offers a fuller and more stimulating field for observation.
Lebanese radio and television broadcasting are regulated by a dedicated law, n°382 of 4
November 1994. This law was passed by the Council of Ministers and published in the Official
Journal of 10 July 1994. It aims “to regulate radio and television broadcasting, whatever
technique, means, or equipment may be used, and independent of its status or name, as
well as regulating all questions relative to such broadcasting”.
Nowadays, a license is required before any radio or television media can be established on
Lebanese soil, accorded “in virtue of a decree passed by the Council of Ministers after
consultation with the National Audiovisual Council”. The law further specifies that “the
license is valid for a period of 16 years, renewable in virtue of an application submitted
three years before the expiry date”. This license is granted to radio and television media
according to their capacities and the technical characteristics of their transmitters and
broadcasting equipment. The law in particular stipulates that they “may not broadcast any
programme that may help to promote relations with the Zionist enemy”.
According to article 12, any given audiovisual enterprise may only own one radio or
television station. In practice, when a radio belongs to a “media group”, it is in fact coupled
with a television station.
20
Radio stations are subject to very precise nomenclature:
- category 1: radio stations which broadcast all kinds of radio programmes, including news
and political programmes, and whose range covers the entire Lebanese territory;
- category 2: radio stations which broadcast all kinds of radio broadcasts, with the exception
of news and political programmes, and whose range covers the entire Lebanese territory;
- category 3: digital radio stations, whose broadcasts may only be received by subscribers
with the appropriate technical equipment;
- category 4: international radio stations, whose broadcasts require the use of satellites and
extend beyond Lebanese territorial limits.
The law also stipulates that “each radio or television station nominate a director of
programming” and that “the director must have had Lebanese nationality for more than ten
years”.
The standard specifications for category 1 and 2 radio and television organisations were
ratified by the Minister of Information, in virtue of decree n°7997 of 28 February 1996,
which specifies the dispositions and conditions for applying law n°382.
• Specifications for category 1 radio broadcasting organisations
This document is intended to encourage production in the area concerned and to develop a
modern media industry. It specifies the objectives of category 1 radio stations, which must
agree to “respect the individual”, “encourage Lebanese radio and artistic production”,
“ensure free and professional competition between radio broadcasting organisations”,
“adopt a considered and flexible programming schedule, that suits given age groups and
protects public morals and family ties”. In order to attain these objectives, the
specifications call upon radio broadcasting organisations to “ensure diversity in the
expression of opinions”, to guarantee “human rights”, “preserve public order, national
defence and imperatives in the public interest”, to agree not to “broadcast any programme
that may promote relations with the Zionist enemy”, “not to broadcast any programme that
may stir up or incite religious animosity, or any subject that may encourage society and
especially children, to physical or moral violence”.
The specifications also lay out the legal, financial and administrative conditions of category
1.
Legally, the company applying for the licence must “be a Lebanese limited company not
possessing or having the right to possess more than a single television organisation and a
single radio organisation”. All of its shares must be attributed and shareholders, when they
are named individuals, must be Lebanese. Other shareholders, not individuals, must be “a
Lebanese company”. Similarly, the internal regulations of the organisation must stipulate
that, “no individual or corporate body has the right to own more than 10% of the total of the
company’s shares (…) and does not have the right to be a shareholder in more than one
company”. The radio station is also required to “publish the list of its shareholders in the
Official Journal and the proportion of shares they hold”. It is also “forbidden to sell or
transfer shares without prior authorisation from the Council of Ministers”.
Financial conditions: the license application “must contain proof of the capacity of the
organisation to absorb all expenditures in at least the first year after the license is
awarded”.
On an administrative level, “the organisation must nominate a full-time director of
programming, who should hold a university diploma recognised by the authorities competent
in the field of his or her specialisation”. Furthermore, “the organisation must have specialist
directors and heads of department”.
On a technical level, the radio station is requested to “prepare files, technical studies and
documentation regarding the attribution of the frequencies which are granted to it, and to
present them to the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, in order that it be registered
with the International Frequency Registration Board (ITU) in due form”. It is also stipulated
that, “if a media organisation wishes to install a new transmitter, it must submit a request
to the Ministry of Information”.
In order to enable the government to monitor the content of radio programmes, the
specifications require the organisation “to record all kinds of live radio broadcasts and to
archive them for at least 30 days from the date they were first broadcast. The organisation
accepts responsibility for submitting the recorded programme to the appropriate authorities
during this period”.
The specifications require the radio organisation to carry out “continuous quality control of
signals at the different stages, from studios and production units, via relay networks to the
transmitters situated in all the various centres”.
Under the law the Council of Ministers must publish a decree allowing radio stations to begin
broadcasting, by attributing frequencies. The decision, which is taken “on the basis of a
proposal from the Ministers of Information and Telecommunications, which fixes the
broadcasting frequencies attributed to each organisation that has obtained a licence, as well
as the geographical areas in which these frequencies may be used, and the broadcasting
characteristics associated with each of them”.
The license for the use of frequencies and relay equipment by radio broadcasting
organisations is obtained from the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications, in conformity
with conditions imposed by this Ministry.
The specifications also set out the conditions to which transmitter pylons must conform, as
well as the specifications for aerials. They also specify the technical characteristics required
for FM broadcasting and various other parameters, such as the type of modulation, voice
bandwidth, etc.
Apart from these technical aspects, category 1 radio broadcasting organisations are called
upon to respect a certain number of programming rules. A category 1 radio organisation
“must broadcast a minimum of 18 hours a day of local programmes, both Arabic and
international”. The station must devote a minimum of 1076 hours per year, to programmes
produced locally, according to the following breakdown:
- news: 400 hours;
- political: 104 hours;
- cultural: 78 hours;
- educational: 26 hours;
- women and families: 26 hours,
- children: 52 hours;
- the environment: 26 hours;
- health: 26 hours;
22
- sport: 52 hours;
- young people: 52 hours;
- entertainment and games: 104 hours;
- drama: 26 hours;
- rural and farming: 52 hours;
- the economy: 52 hours.
The radio station must produce 10 hours of programmes featuring Lebanese arts. The
specifications state how this production should be broken down. For example, it should
produce six pieces of light music or jazz and 13 songs for children, etc. It also states how
often news bulletins should be broadcast, and even that the station must produce at least
four news bulletins per day, if it broadcasts for more than 18 hours a day. The specifications
make it obligatory to broadcast “the official Independence Day ceremonies”. On the other
hand it is forbidden “to broadcast live coverage of any political ceremony without
appropriate authorisation”. Even more curiously, the specifications oblige radio stations to
“devote time in its programmes to family-oriented issues, to strengthen links between family
members”. And, furthermore, “to pay special attention to women, so that they may fulfil
their role in society and ensure family well-being”. Finally, all radio stations must “play the
national anthem at the start and end of broadcasting each day”.
• Specifications for category 2 radio broadcasting organisations
The specifications for category 2 radio stations are almost identical to those for category 1.
The differences concern programming issues, such as the minimum number of hours of
broadcasting and of local programme content. Radio stations in this category must devote at
least 1076 hours per year to locally-produced programmes. And the breakdown is different
to that for category 1 stations:
- documentaries in the station’s specialist area: 400 hours;
- programmes in the station’s specialist area: 104 hours.
Category 2 radio stations therefore do not broadcast news, or political programmes. Their
news flashes must relate only to their areas of specialisation.
The right to a category 1 license costs 125 million Lebanese pounds (75,000 euros) while the
annual rental fee for the use of the assigned frequency is 25 million pounds (15,000 euros).
Meanwhile, the right to a category 2 licence costs 50 million pounds (30,000 euros) and the
annual frequency rental fee is 15 million pounds (9,000 euros). A political station is
therefore more expensive than a station devoted to entertainment.
• The Regulatory body: The National Audiovisual Council
The Council, which is a consultative body, was set up under law n°382 of 4 November 1994,
which also sets out its prerogatives. It comprises ten members nominated equally by the
Council of Ministers and the National Assembly. Its duties are to:
- advise on the standard specifications for each category of radio and television broadcasting
organisation;
- consider each application for a license, write a report and present it to the Minister of
Information within 45 days of the application being received;
- advise the Minister on measures to be taken against organisations which infringe the
regulations;
- consider requests for licences submitted to the Council of Ministers via the Minister of
Information;give consultative advice to the Council of Ministers, regarding the approval or rejection of
applications.
The National Audiovisual Council’s mandate is for three years, and is renewable
• List of licensed radio stations (August 2005)20
Category 1 radio stations
1. Radio NBN (National Broadcasting Network), close to the Amal Shi’a movement, whose
chairman is Head of the National Assembly.
2. Radio Orient (Al-Mustaqbil), owned by the family of the former Prime Minister, Rafic
Hariri.
3. Sawt Al-Shaab (Voice of the People), close to the Lebanese Communist Party.
4. Sawt Al-Ghad (Voice of Tomorrow).
5. Sawt Lubnan (Voice of Lebanon), close to the Lebanese army.
6. Lubnan Al-Hur (Free Lebanon), close to the Phalangists.
7. Radio Lebanon.
8. Radio Al-Nour, close to Hezbollah.
9. Sawt Al-Watan (Voice of the Country).
10. International Society for Media Projects.
11. Voice of Beirut and Lebanon.
12. Radio Mont Lebanon, close to the Druze leader Walid Joumblat.
13. Radio Al-Fajr, Sunni.
Category 2 radio stations
1. Al-Bashair.
2. Radio Delta.
3. Sawn Music.
4. Radio Scope.
5. Fame FM.
6. Lebanon Star.
7. Pax FM.
8. Radio Mont Liban
9. Radio One.
10. Mix FM.
11. Light FM.
12. France FM.
13. Nostalgie FM.
14. Radio Strike.
15. Sawt Fun.
16. MBS.
It is obviously difficult to carry out an exhaustive review of Lebanese radio stations, because
they are so numerous. The following may serve as a guide to their importance.
1. Nostalgie FM
Operating in Lebanon since February 1988 and officially launched in February 1995,
Nostalgie Liban follows the same marketing imperatives as all the other radio in the
Nostalgie Internationale network, to which it belongs. According to its web site, the station
“broadcasts legendary hits in French and English. Programming is based on songs from the
60’s, 70’s and 80’s and also includes new recordings”. Nostalgie FM covers the entire country
with two frequencies, 88 and 87.7 MHz and claims to aim at a wide audience (from 20 – 60
years) from all classes of society.
www.nostalgie.com.lb
2. Radio Al-Nour
Radio Al-Nour was launched on 19 May 1988 by Hezbollah, and calls itself “a
Lebanese media institution” working to promote “the values, principles and concepts
embodied in the divine messages”. It also claims to promote resistance against Israeli
colonisation. A general interest station, Al-Nour also broadcasts drama productions. It
employs 100 staff, including 45 journalists. Its news department comprises 60% female staff.
The Hezbollah station only received its license in September 1999 as a category 1 radio.
Being granted legal status gave it access to the Arab world and, in the year 2000, it became
a member of the Arab States Broadcasting Union (ASBU), an organisation linked to the Arab
League. This meant that it could take advantage of the training seminars held by this
organisation, and take part in festivals and competitions across the Arab world. As a result,
Al-Nour has won several trophies and in 2001, received the largest number of prizes in the
Arab world. Since 2002, the station has gone digital and covers all of Lebanon, Palestine,
certain regions of Jordan and Cyprus. In 1999, it opened a web site. Radio Al-Nour’s annual
budget is US$800,000 - $1 million. Its resources come from donations, advertising revenue,
and sales of its productions. Officially independent of Hezbollah, it is nevertheless directed
by an executive committee comprising members of this party. Its correspondents cover
Palestine (West Bank and Gaza), Turkey, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt and Iran. With the intention of
being open to all Lebanese political leanings, Radio Al-Nour invites all parties to express
themselves on its airwaves. It does, however, draw the line at giving airtime to Israelis.
3. Voice of Lebanon
Founded in 1975, this station claims to be the first commercial radio to broadcast
across Lebanon. A general station, it broadcasts on 93.3 - 93.4 MHz FM in the Bekaa valley,
and on 93.6 MHz in the south and north of the country. Voice of Lebanon is also relayed to
Canada by Middle East Radio and in Australia by another station with the same name. In
Beirut, it re-broadcasts live news in Arabic from Radio Canada International (RCI), according
to an agreement between the two radio stations. Voice of Lebanon has also signed an
agreement with RFI allowing it to broadcast a news programme in French.
www.vdl.com.lb
4. Radio Van
Music station
www.voiceofvan.com
5. Sawt Al-Ghad (Voice of Tomorrow)
Live music station via Internet.
www.sawtelghad.com
6. Radio Strike
Arabic language music station
www.radiostrike.com
7. Radio Mont Lebanon
www.rml.com.lb
8. Fame FM
A music station founded in 1998 by linking two other FM stations - Magic 102, which
was launched in 1977 and broadcasting in eastern Lebanon – and Switch FM, a leading
Oriental dance station. Fame FM broadcasts all forms of music: R’n’B, pop, and rock. The
station broadcasts on two frequencies, 99.9 and 99.5 MHz. It covers the entire country and
some areas of neighbouring Syria and Israel.
www.famefm.com
9. Radio Delta
A music station with a small team of two producers, three presenters and some DJ’s,
Radio Delta was the first Lebanese station to broadcast on internet. It was founded in 1982
by its CEO, businessman, Rony Njeim, and obtained its broadcasting license in 1996. It
broadcasts 24 hours a day across the entire country. It can also be received on the east coast
of Cyprus, in Jordan and Syria. According to certain statistics, Radio Delta is the premier FM
radio in terms of audience.
www.radiodelta.com
10. Radio Scope
www.radioscopelb.com
11. Radio Free Lebanon
This generalist station was founded by Béchir Gemayel during the civil war in mid-
Summer 1978. It first broadcast in AM out of a convent in the Adra region. It later moved to
premises just outside Beirut. Following the Ta’if Accords, Radio Free Lebanon was the first
station to obtain a licence as a category 1 radio, in February 1996. It is managed by the Free
Lebanon Company for Producing and Broadcasting and directed by Shawki Abou Sleiman. It
goes out on 102.3 MHz - 102.7 MHz, from 5.40 am to 12.45 am, broadcasting news from LBC
(Lebanese Broadcast Corporation) at 8 pm, and a newsflash every hour.
www.rll.com.lb
12. Pax FM
www.paxradio.com
13. Mix FM
This music station was founded in 1996. It covers all of Lebanon, with a non-stop
selection of music. It has also been broadcasting in Cyprus since
2002, on 102.3 MHz.
www.mixfm.com.lb
14. Radio One
Launched in 1988 this music station goes out on 105.5 MHz.
www.radioonev5.com
15. Sawt Al-Mousika
Belonging to the company of the same name, this station received its broadcasting
license in 1996.
www.sawtelmousika.com
16. Sawt Al-Shaab
Close to the Lebanese Communist Party, Voice of the People started broadcasting in
1987, and goes out on 103.7 and 104 MHz. The station claims to be open to all tendencies of
the country’s political left and be a proponent of democracy and secularism. Sawt Al-Shaab
favours social programmes and gives airtime to civil society organisations. The station was
one of the first to be licensed, in 1996. Its director says that his station, which was one of
the rare non-religious stations, between 1987 - 1996, played an important role in this period
and attracted a great many listeners. He admits that Sawt Al-Shaab has lost some of its
audience since 1996. According to the station’s surveys, it now attracts around 200,000
listeners daily. The station coves South Lebanon and Beirut. It employs 50 staff, 25 of them
journalists, of whom 12 work in Lebanon and five abroad. The station has a single
headquarters, but several transmitters. Its annual budget is estimated at US$300,000.
Because of its narrow range, Sawt Al-Shaab attracts very little advertising. The station
carries no religious programmes and has never received foreign financial support.
28
• Audience
A survey carried out by a private company, Lebanon Statistics, in August 2005 on a
sample of 600 listeners living in Lebanon, yielded the following results, for entertainment
and music FM stations:
- stations broadcasting in Arabic: Sawt Al-Ghad 40,3%, Radio Delta 20,5%, Radio Strike 20%,
Sawt Al-Mousika 12,7%;
- foreign language stations: Nostalgie 18,7%, Radio One 8,5%, Mix FM 1%;
- general and political news stations: Voice of Lebanon 28%, Free Voice of Lebanon 28%,
Voice of the Orient Voix (Sawt Al-Shark) 17,3%, Sawt Al-Shaab 10,8%, Radio Monte-Carlo
1,33%.
• Reality of radio pluralism
In its first report to the Minister of Information, on 12 June 2001, the Lebanese
Audiovisual Council asked the Legislator to pass other laws and decrees so that radio and
television could be institutionalised and better organised.
The report raised the issue of certain religious media, which sidestep the law and broadcast
without a license, as well as the expanding sector of telephone information.
The report also pointed out that most category 1 and 2 stations were not adhering to the
specifications laid down by the law: e.g. non-payment of license fees and taxes, and
disrespect for legal obligations concerning employees (social security cover, or not sending a
list of employees to the Audiovisual Council, etc.).
However, the most common infringement, according to the 2001 report, is a disregard for
the legal arrangements concerning programme schedules and the assignment of themes to
certain times of day. The most recent Audiovisual Council report came out in September
2005, and brings attention to programme content. Looking at coverage of the 21 June 2005
general elections, and based on observations from 19 May 2005 au 19 June that year, the
report found several cases where both radio and television had violated regulations. It says
that the Lebanese political crisis, compounded by the elections, turned the media into
religious and political tools. Current practices in this period included bias in the time
devoted to different candidate parties, outright propaganda for the candidate that a given
media and its owner supported, attacks on a neighbouring country (Syria), denigration of
competing candidates, and incitement to religious hatred.
Now, more than ever, scrutiny of the context in Lebanon shows just to what extent politics
in that country are organised around religion, with the media being just one of the most
instructive examples. These observations are also confirmed in a report by the committee of
observation of the European Union.
The crisis is, in effect, accentuating the major weakness of Lebanese radio broadcasting
(category 1 stations), namely, its religious structure. And, with a few exceptions, Lebanese
radio stations reproduce this structure. They are often little more than a tool in the hands of
the main shareholder, usually a religious leader, and therefore a politician. This is why many
are calling for the Audiovisual Council to be given more power, in order to regulate the
media to a greater extent.
The other main problem comes from the numerous commercial stations, whose main concern
is profit, which they get from advertising. These stations are usually operated by very small
teams of young people with no further education. They are happy just to broadcast a hit
parade of popular songs and society news. The advertising market is, as yet, not regulated
by any laws.
31
1. Radio Amwaj (Waves)
Broadcasting on 91.5 MHz, Amwaj is a generalist station, launched in June 1995. Up
until 2002, Amwaj was the foremost Palestinian radio station in the West Bank. The Israeli
invasion of Ramallah, at the end of June that year, was catastrophic. Because of the
station’s strategic location, near to Muqata, the Palestinian Authority headquarters, the
Israeli army entered the radio station’s offices, forced the personnel to leave and turned it
into a military control centre, causing very extensive damage. Israel left the premises a year
later, but Amwaj had lost 90% of its equipment. Today, the station is operating with a
minimum of equipment and staff.
The station relies on advertising for funding, and belongs to a group of Palestinian
businessmen. It covers Ramallah, Jerusalem, part of Nablus and coastal regions to the West.
The station has a 2000-watt Meta system, a recording studio and three departments –
technical, programming and administration. Amwaj employs a staff of 18, including its
director Sa’ad Arori, seven presenters and one producer. Because of its financial problems,
the station has temporarily suspended its news service, but continues to offer its listeners a
varied programme covering several aspects of Palestinian society. The most important daily
broadcast is Amwaj As-Sabah (Morning Waves), which goes out from 7 am to 8.30 am. It
starts with a review of the Palestinian press and then covers a national political or social
issue, interviewing Palestinian public figures. It rounds up with a diary of social events that
day in Ramallah. The other daily broadcast is a review of the Israeli daily papers, with
comments by Arab and Palestinian thinkers. The station also broadcasts co-productions with
Palestinian civil society organisations and international NGOs. Since 2005, Amwaj has been
broadcasting short information briefs from Palestinian women’s organisations on work and
health issues.
2. Radio Ajyal (Radio Generations)
Ajyal goes out on 103.4 MHz and belongs to a wealthy Palestinian businessman, Deeb
Bakri, who also owns Angham (a music radio for young people, launched in 2001 and going
out on 92.3 MHz) as well as Ajyal al-Janoub, broadcasting on 107.1 MHz. Radio Ajyal, which
is seen as the most important station in the West Bank, was able to recruit a team of
experienced professionals as soon as it started. With its 10 kW transmitter, and financed
from advertising revenue, Ajyal covers all of the Occupied Territories, part of the North of
Jordan and the north of Egypt. The station’s management says it has excellent relations with
the Palestinian Authority, but also says it has come under pressure from armed factions.
Ajyal has seven departments (administration, marketing, finances, programming, editing,
technical and maintenance), and employs 32 full-time, and 7 part-time staff 25.
Ajyal is a generalist station, broadcasting news bulletins, a variety of other programmes and
music. News flashes are broadcast on the hour, from 8.00 a.m. to 10 p.m., cover
Palestinian, Arab and International news and last a maximum of 5 minutes. The station uses
Internet to gather news, has subscriptions to Reuters and Wafa (the official Palestinian
agency), and to the Al-Jazeera satellite channel. During the Ramallah events, Ajyal regularly
sent in a correspondent. Using a video camera phone, the radio was able to file live reports.
Some journalists work for Ajyal as well as the official station, Voice of Palestine (Sawt
Filistin), which allows the station to benefit from their skills and access to news information.
This has drawbacks regarding the station ‘s editorial independence vis-a-vis the Palestinian
Authority.
3. Radio Bethlehem 2000
A generalist station broadcasting out of Bethlehem on 96.4 MHz and via an internet
site. It is owned by Yousef Shomali and covers Bethlehem, Hebron and Jerusalem. The
station has six computers and is organised into four departments: technical, commercial,
programming and administration. It has a staff of 16, nine of them part-time. Some
employees followed a technical training course in the year 2000 (on mixing, direction, sound
engineering, interview techniques, and marketing) held by a Catholic institute. Radio
Bethlehem 2000 broadcasts news, cultural and scientific programmes, entertainment, and
music. News bulletins are broadcast every hour and cover national and international current
affairs. The station also broadcasts its own review of daily papers between 9.00 a.m. and
9.30 a.m., using Palestinian and sometimes Israeli and Arab newspapers. From 1 p.m. to 1.30
p.m. the station broadcasts a news programme on the day’s main events, with reports and
interviews with Palestinian Authority officials. The station also broadcasts a daily news flash
in English. Radio Bethlehem gathers information for its news from satellite channels and
internet sites, as well as a network of journalists and reporters working for other media who
accept to collaborate. The station suffers from a lack of social programmes and the heads of
the station recognise that staff need more training. Because of the economic crisis in the
West Bank, Radio Bethlehem 2000 has lost part of its advertising revenue. This station does
not work with Palestinian civil society NGOs.
4. Radio Isis
This station was launched in September 2003, broadcasting in Bethlehem on 87.5
MHz and has a website (www.radioisis.net). Its owner is Georges Misleh, and revenue comes
mainly from advertising. Radio Isis uses a 1200-watt transmitter for Bethlehem and 300 watts
for Hebron, and also covers Jerusalem, Ramallah and Jericho. It has a staff of 16 persons,
including the director and five 5 presenters. However, none of the employees has any real
training in journalism26. In the beginning, the station only broadcast general interest
programmes and music, but has recently introduced three news bulletins into its schedule –
at 10.00 a.m., noon and 3.00 p.m. via the satellite network. Radio Isis produces programmes
on social, political and cultural issues, including a weekly news panorama, based on a
selection of the week’s events. A panel of guests is invited to comment on these events
either in the studio or by telephone, while listeners can also phone in. Another weekly
programme, called “People and NGOs”, is devoted to the local activities of Palestinian civil
society organisations. Its format includes interviews with militants from these organisations
and telephone calls from the public. Radio Isis also produces a cultural programme devoted
to young artists, and a twice-daily news programme broadcast in the morning and evening,
that looks at national events and includes a review of the Palestinian and foreign press,
reports, political analysis and interviews with representatives of the Palestinian Authority.
Radio Isis also produces programmes on national folk culture, with patriotic songs. An acute
financial crisis nevertheless undermines the station’s operation, while the lack of
professional experience of its staff impairs programme quality.
5. Radio Hebron
This was the West Bank’s first radio station, broadcasting out of Ras el-Jora on the
outskirts of Hebron, on 90.6 MHz FM. Started in 1996, it is owned by Amjad Shawer, and
claims to have a moderate and independent editorial policy. With a 200-watt transmitter, it
broadcasts with a range of 25 km, covering the district of Hebron, the Negev desert,
26.- the station’s director has a degree in media production.
Jordan
The first licence given to a privately owned radio station in Jordan was on 16
November 2003. In October 2005, the Audiovisual Commission awarded a further 14 licences.
Five radio stations are currently being set up, while eight licensed stations have started
broadcasting. These are:
- Mood FM, which belongs to an advertising company called Al-Nawaris, owned by Hussin
Khithr. It goes out on 92.0 MHz and covers greater Amman;
- Play FM, belongs to a company called Al-Haditha lili’lam, owned by Ramzi Halabi. It goes
out on 99.2 MHz and covers greater Amman;
- Mazaj FM, belongs to a company called Al-Shabaka Al-Arabiyya lili’lâm (Arab Information
Network), owned by businessman Tarik Abou Al-Ghad. The station goes out on 95.3 MHz and
covers the Greater Amman region;
37
- Radio Beat. Mood FM, it belongs to a company called Al-Nawaris, owned by businessman,
Hussin Khithr. It goes out on 102.4 MHz and covers Greater Amman;
- Ahlan FM, belongs to a company called Al-Diqa lil Bath al-Itha’i (Precision for Radio
Broadcasting), owned by Ali Janik. It goes out on 97.1 MHz and covers Amman;
- Sawt Al-Ghad. This is a Lebanese station that belongs to a company registered in Jordan,
called Al-Urdun al-dawliyya lil Bath al-itha’i (Jordan International for Radio Broadcasting),
owned by Lebanese businessman Mutassim Abbabina. The station goes out on 99.3 MHz and
covers the Greater Amman region;
- Radio Rottana, belongs to the mother company Rottana, a well-known broadcasting
company that manages several satellite channels owned by rich Saudis. This Jordanian
station is registered in the name of a company called Al-Kawn lil- bath al-Ithai wal tilfisyuni
(the Universe for Radio and Television broadcasting) and belongs to businessmen Muhanid
Khalifa and Zayd Jumua. The station goes out on 99.9 MHz and covers Greater Amman;
- Sawt al-Mujtam al-Mahali (Voice of Local Society) is the only local radio dedicated to civil
society (formerly Amman.net). It is registered in the name of David Kuttab (a company) and
belongs to a Palestinian intellectual, Dawood Kuttab. The station goes out on 96.4 MHz and
covers Greater Amman.
• The Amman.net experiment
Amman.net got started by making use of a loophole in Jordanian law, which had
made no provision for broadcasting over internet. The project was launched in October 2000
by Palestinian journalist Dawood Kuttab, with support from UNESCO, and was conceived as
the first step in building an internet site. In December 2001, Amman.net was registered as
an on-line radio station, with a number of journalists as its executive committee.
Amman.net gave priority to local news about Amman. Meanwhile, regional, Arab and foreign
news was broadcast if it had repercussions for Jordan’s capital city. Amman.net hoped to
attract young listeners and to become an independent station to civil society. The station
broadcast news bulletins and reports. It also put out cultural, social and political
programmes. Up until October 2005, Amman.net was broadcast on the Web, as well as by
satellite via Nilesat, from 5 p.m. – 7 p.m. on 11881 MHz. The station looked at Parliamentary
life in Jordan, with its programme ‘Looking at Parliament’, covering the work and
discussions of the House. It also launched an educational programme on civil and political
rights, supported by the European Union. The station offered its listeners a weekly review of
the press based on papers published in Jordan, Palestine and the Lebanon, as well as a
national tourism service (www.ammantoday.com). In 2005, Amman.net had obtained a
licence for political broadcasting and had started to broadcast in Palestine on 2 October.
Amman.net ceased to exist.
Other local radio stations are being set up, notably:
- Al-Hayatt FM. An independent station, close to Jordanian Islamists, but which wants to
remain apolitical. Its priority is to look at education about Islam and the family. It goes out
in Arabic and relies on advertising revenue.
- Radio Ma’an29. This station was launched by the University of Ma’an, together with the
British Council and al-Hussein University. It is run by students, and hopes to become a local
radio for young people. It has already obtained a license and will start broadcasting early in
2006.
- Sawt Karak30. This local radio station was started by the Forum of Popular Forces (a
coalition of civil society NGOs). It has already obtained a licence and expects to start
broadcasting early in 2006. The station’s priority is to improve cultural life and tourism in
the Karak region. The station has been exonerated from paying the license tax.
The privatisation of radio broadcasting in Jordan has, with a few exceptions, been of most
benefit to music stations and their sponsors, rich businessmen close to the Palace, who
control a major part of the advertising market. This is especially the case for Fun FM, owned
by Zayd Jumua (the husband of Princess Aïcha, the King’s sister, and owner of Al-Kawn llil
bath al-ithai wal talfazi). Fun FM was launched in 2004 and is considered to be the most
popular station. Some of its shareholders are members of the royal family, but no-one, of
course, thinks that its news department is directed by the army information service. Zayd
Jumua is also shareholder or owner of the society magazine Layalina (Our Nights), the
newspaper, Al-Ghad (Tomorrow), and the magazines Go and Hello.
The exorbitant tax imposed by the law and the lack of any state support for local radio
encourages entertainment radio and television stations, which is tantamount to political
selection on monetary criteria. In total, eight music radio stations have been launched or are
in the process of setting up.
• Foreign radio stations
As well as receiving the independent stations, Jordanians can also pick up the US
station, Sawa, which covers Amman and the West Bank on 98.1 MHz and north Jordan on
107.1 MHz; the BBC, which covers Amman on 103.1 MHz and 417 AM; and Radio Monte-Carlo,
which covers Amman on 97.4 MHz and Ajlun on 106.2 MHz.
• The official radio station
Jordanian Radio and Television has three stations broadcasting on AM and FM. In
1994 the public radio channel launched an FM station broadcasting 24/7 to Amman on 105.6
MHz, 99 MHz and 103.8 MHz. It broadcasts news flashes every half-hour and music from 8
p.m. to 7 a.m. A Jordanian Radio French service started on 27 November 1992 with two
hours of programmes. It currently broadcasts 13 hours a day in two blocks – music DJ's in the
morning (7 a.m. – 11 a.m.) and evening (4 p.m. – 8 p.m.) and another block of programmes
and music from 11 a.m. to 4 p.m. It produces three news three bulletins, going out at 7.30
a.m., 1 p.m. and 6.30 p.m., on top of the half-hourly news flashes.
Egypt
Egyptian radio broadcasting comprises 70 radio stations in eight national networks,
making it the most developed in the Arab region. The stations broadcast on FM, AM and
shortwave. The national radio stations broadcast over 300 hours of programmes a day. Since
2003, Egypt has had two privately owned radio stations: Nugum FM (Stars) and Nile Radio 1.
The first radio station in the Arab world opened in Egypt. It was set up by the British
authorities under the reign of King Farouk, in 1926, and run by a private commercial
company. This led to several stations (including Egyptian Kingdom Radio, Radio Misr al
Malakeya, Radio Sabo, and Radio al Amir Farouk) to start broadcasting on Egyptian soil. In
1932, King Farouk’s Minister of Information decided to pass a new law to organise radio
broadcasting, in an attempt to deal with the rising scale of protest against the British
occupation. He declared all existing stations illegal. The same year a contract was signed
with a British company to run a new Egyptian radio station. It was officially launched on 31
May 1934. Egyptian Radio was to be a pioneer in the Arab world. The contract with the
British company was renewed in 1943.
But because of mounting Egyptian resistance and diminishing British influence in the Arab
world after the Second World War, the contract with the British company was suspended in
1947 and the station became 100% Egyptian.
Egyptian Radio entered its golden age after the 1952 revolution. The new leadership thought
it could be used to boost national identity and public awareness, modernise morals and
combat the most outdated customs. President Nasser decided to assign the radio station a
significant budget, and it became a political instrument, influencing the spread of its
policies and defending national independence movements in the Arab world and Africa.
Radio stations broadcasting in several foreign languages were set up, to compete with the
foreign service stations of colonial or imperial powers, such as France, Great Britain and the
United States.
When Sadat came to power in 1970, the media became relatively more open. The
‘Corrective Revolution’ (Thawret Al-Tashih) started in 1971 as a means to distance or
neutralise the Nasser old guard, spreading to editors of the state press. But the main change
in the media came from shifts in censorship rules and the authorisation given to opposition
parties to publish their own newspapers. It also opened the way for private investment in
the media a few years later with the arrival to power of Mubarak.
During the Sadat era, but even more so under Mubarak, self-censorship replaced censorship
as the way to regulate the media. But radio was inured against change and remained under
the exclusive control of the ruling elite.
In an effort to muster support from other Arab states, especially investors from the Gulf
States, and to prepare the Egyptian public for the signature of peace agreements with Israel
in 1979, Sadat gave a new direction to radio Sawt Al-Arab (Voice of the Arabs). As part of the
same impetus, he founded a new station in 1975, called Al-Shabab wal Reyada (Youth and
Sport) to symbolise the new era. He also set up a new ministry with the same name, as well
as a secretariat for youth.
Today radio is the second most popular media after television, with 18 million radio sets in
the country31.
In 1981, Egyptian national radio had seven services: the most prominent was Al-Barnameg Al-
Am (general programme network), Sawt Al-Arab (Voice of Arabs), Al-Shabaka Al-Thakafiya
(cultural network), Al-Shabaka Al-Tigariyya (commercial network), Al-Qur’an (Koranic
network), Al-Mahaliyyat (local radio network), and Al-Mowagahat, (foreign service network).
The local radio network is made up of 11 radio services covering different departments in
the country. This network includes a station in Alexandria that was launched in 1954, a
station in the centre of the Delta which has been broadcasting since 1982, an Upper Egypt
station broadcasting since 1983, a station for the Northern Sinai launched in 1984, and one
for Southern Sinai started in 1985. The latter two stations were set up for tourism. A station
in the Wadi El Gedid valley started in 1990, as well as an educational station. The foreign
service network was founded in 1953 and comprised 45 stations broadcasting in 35
languages.
31.- Doaa Mohamed Zaki Darwish “History and Development of the Egyptian Radio (a case study)”, PhD thesis, July
2003, American University, Cairo, p. 23Under President Mubarak, television became trans-national, with the introduction of
satellite channels, while Egypt launched its own satellite, Nilesat, in April 1998. Several
other projects also helped bring about change in Egypt’s media, like the vast “Media
Production City” complex 30 km outside of Cairo, with several production studios and, since
2003, the first Egyptian independent radio station. When Egypt signed the Gatt agreements,
it gave a strong push to privatisation efforts. This had effects on the media sector, as seen
by the licenses awarded to private channels and, in 2003, to FM radio stations, like Nugum
FM and Nile Radio1.
Official figures on the nine state radio stations show that, between 1 July 2000 and 30 June
2001, news made up 0.6% of general programming, political programmes 9.1%, religious
programmes 15%, entertainment programmes 33.2% and educational programmes 1.2%.
Religious programmes are more important on local stations. Up until the late 1990s, political
programmes were scrutinised by a special unit in the Information department before being
broadcast32. The influence of satellite channels on all of Egypt’s radio and television media
should not be overlooked. During the war against Iraq, all the country’s radio stations
changed their programme schedules to cover the event and adopted an editorial line hostile
to the war. Even the music station followed the rule, broadcasting patriotic songs.
Altogether, the nine radio stations broadcast a total of 11,803 hours in 2000-2001.
• The Ministry responsible
From the time Egyptian Radio started, up until 1939, it came under the Ministry of
Communication. This responsibility was then transferred to the Ministry of Social Affairs,
then the Ministry of the Interior, from 1942 to the end of the Second World War. In 1947, the
radio was given a new status by decree, as an independent organisation under the Ministry of
Social Affairs. In November 1952, responsibility passed to the newly created Ministry of
Planning. In 1958 it was declared an independent public body under a new name – United
Arab Republic Radio. In 1971, Egypt’s radio and television were merged into a single
institution, which became the Egyptian Radio and Television Union (ERTU). A satellite
channel section was added later, in the late 1990s.
Since 1972, Egyptian radio has been slightly subsidised by a license fee, paid as part of the
domestic electricity bill, as well as government grants. Advertising was only introduced
recently.
• Independent radio stations33
The government recently authorised two independent stations, each employing eight
people: Nugum FM (100.6 MHz), an Arabic language music station, and Nile FM (104.2 MHz),
a music station in English, both with premises in the “Media Production City” complex.
Both stations belong to the Good News group, which manages several newspapers, including
Al-Alam Al-Youm (The World Today), Nahdhat Misr (The Renaissance of Egypt), Adam
magazine, and Kul Al-Nass (Everyone). Its main shareholder is Immad Adib, former star
41
journalist for the Saudi network, Orbit. Some say he is just a front-man for the son of Safwat
Al-Sharif, Minister of Information, and current president of the Shura Council (upper house of
parliament). According to the management of Good News, this experiment has been a great
success. The annual turnover of Nugum FM, which has been on the air since 2003, is officially
25 million Egyptian pounds (3.6 million euros), while the two radio stations bring in a total of
11 million Egyptian pounds (1.6 million euros).
Syria
Radio broadcasting in Syria is very poorly developed, even if, as in other Arab
countries, it has been making progress. Since 2002, some independent music and commercial
FM stations have started to appear. In 2003, the first two independent radio stations were
authorised, Al-Madina (the City) and Al-Arabiya (Arabic), but they are not allowed to
broadcast news.
At the end of September 2005, the then Syrian Prime Minister, Naji Otari, authorised a
further four independent commercial radio stations: Syria Al-Ghad (run by a company called
Sawt Al-Ghad), Style FM, Melody FM and Farah FM. And, at the same time, in early December
2005, a privately owned television station, Al-Sham, started broadcasting, while, according
to official sources, another nine television stations are being authorised34.
Meanwhile, the Syrian state owns three stations: Syrian Arab Republic Radio, Radio
Damascus and Radio al-Shabab (an FM music station).
But this sudden move to open up radio and TV broadcasting seems to be more of a response
to pressure from the USA.

Edited by Zvartoshu, 14 March 2008 - 16:10.

in the romania on this day the sporadic E - reception start  at 15:46 , the singnals sporadic  87.8mhz , 88.7mhz , 90.0mhz , 90.5mhz , 93.0mhz , 93.8mhz .. the singnal's are instabile- low!
go in the city of 16:05 , and the back the EON memored in LCD of my radio the RDS name.. "INTER" of the 87.8MHz , the inter is signal on this sporadic E , e-skip is on the france ,the signal is on the paris , tour effel , is vertical antena transmitter , and power is 10kw
the picture is here of the capture

in romania in aceasta zi receptia sporadic e  a pornit la 15:46 cu diferite semnalesporadice pe 87.8......93.8mhz , semnalele fiind instabile si slabe
am plecat in orasi la 16:05 , si cand m-am intors , eon a memorat pe lcd rds-ul cu numele "INTER" , acesta pe 87.8mhz , semnalul este al INTER-ului in acest sporadic E , e-skip cu franta , paris , turn eifel , este cu o antena verticala transmis , cu o putere de 10kw
poza va arata captura

[ https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/4aqvhUWDZV0?feature=oembed - Pentru incarcare in pagina (embed) Click aici ]

Edited by Zvartoshu, 14 March 2008 - 18:31.

teh information e-skip , sporadic e , television captured in romania

R1h 8p CZE NOVA Ostrava/Hostalkovice 100 731 126° -13f

R2 6p IRN IRIB 2 Tehran 100 3773 106° 45#f

R1 8m I RAI1 M.Nerone 34 1176 170° 50f

R1 0 E TVE1MADRID Navacerrada 125 1801 221° -127f

R1h 0 EST Kanal2 Kunda 20 1173 52° 5#f

R1h 0 BLR TV1 Minsk 25 11309 16° 29#f

R2h 0 EST ETV Narva 0.12 1716 4° 22#f

top sporadic capturi slabe
SF1 - E-2 insabil , durata maxim 2 min
Rusia 1 - R1 - maxim 32 sec ,instabil si cu alt post in carca

radio - 87.7 - italienesc
88.3 arab , vorba una , sper ca este lazal el samad slab , si in valuri
88.3 italienesc prins cand a vorbit . slab si asta !

top sporadic E television capture on this day 19th in bucharest
SF1 - channel E-2
Rusia 1 - R1

radio captures
87.7 signal intalian instabile
88.3 arabian lazal el samad , sawt al musica , orient radio
88.3 italian radio , and listen a speecher live , a men old!

15:59 - 16:12

Zvartoshu, on Mar 19 2008, 16:16, said:

the signal is RADIO 1 , the balanced signal sporadic back , the first sound , the speaker voice radio 1 and finished by the music ,
16:16

Edited by Zvartoshu, 19 March 2008 - 17:08.

first mesage
1 receive bayern 2 on 2005 on the 25 june 17:45 on romania / bucharest
2 receive the jordanian tv on 2002 june 23 at 12:27 on tv band 1 first freq.
3 receive 88.7 sawt al madena jordania at 17:26 on 26th january 2008

the receiver in 2005 is my sistem audio AIWA , tv PANASONIC , and 2008 receiver is Blaupunkt FP5852

the signal lazal el samad 88.7 and 88.3 the grand beirouth and lebanon north is in the nord position of the radiant sistem antena transmiter  , the signal in romania is daily low and minimal low sporadic , the detection is in y2tro radar in smart city lehliu
100kw 88.7, par 235kw
200kw 88.3 , par 424kw

Edited by Antenistu', 24 March 2008 - 03:22.

the signal e-skip localized in romania in cityes , visit the dx-er zone http://dx-eriromania.netboarder.com/ in section EN

Hi dx-ers of the Romania , HUngaria , SERBIA , BULGARIA , TURCIA , URCRAINA , MOLDOVA , GEORGIA , GRECIA , on the date 28.03.2008 the season SPORADIC - E on TV was START .
The first channel E-1 was start the low sporadic E , duration intermitent 1H , maxim 2H .
The channel of the sporadic E is E1 , S1 , R1 , C1 , R2 , S2 ,C2 , GOOOOOOOOOOOO to dx and capture signal ! 73's ... Official SEASON is START !

Sum of the sporadics e in romania are FIRE , and FIRE-MEDIUM , the radar y2tro announce in the date 4th at the 18:32 "the meansurment signals jorandian , italian , german are low power in 1 phase reception on the april sporadics e in romania" !
In the bucharest the link of the y2ste detect a signal 29dB no rds in 88.2mhz and the sporadic signal "7" , this freq is choosing and hit.
04-05apr 2008